Recently, I received a notification on Twitter from my favorite Libyan news source, Fawasel, stating that Libyan territory has welcomed several displaced Sudanese families. The news also mentioned the closing of the border, indicating the severity of the ongoing war in Sudan. This prompted me to look into the political developments that have contributed to this complex crisis. According to information provided by the United Nations, the conflict has tragically claimed the lives of hundreds of people, leaving thousands injured and forcing hundreds of thousands to flee their homes. In response to this situation, various countries, including the United States, have taken precautionary measures such as evacuating their personnel from Sudan and temporarily closing their diplomatic missions there.
Upon my arrival in Qatar, I had the opportunity to meet people from various nationalities, and among them, I formed a strong bond with the Sudanese community. We connected well and had a great bond. I had the chance to taste their delicious cuisine, including dishes like aseeda. Additionally, I had the privilege of attending a Sudanese wedding and immersing myself in their vibrant culture, even learning some of their dialectal words. So, shout out to every single one of my Sudanese friends. :)
Sudan is located in the northeastern part of Africa. Its name, "Sudan," originates from the medieval Arabic expression "bilād al-sūdān," which means "land of the blacks." This term was used by Arab geographers to refer to the settled African countries situated at the southern edge of the Sahara desert. Geographically, Sudan shares its borders with Egypt to the north, the Red Sea, Eritrea, and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic and Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest.
At the time of its independence, Sudan was divided into nine provinces, namely Khartoum, Northern Kasala, Blue Nile, Kordofan, Darfur, Equatoria, Bahr al-Ghazal, and Upper Nile.
In Abdel Salam's book, Sudan is described as a microcosm of Africa, with one foot in the Arab world and the other in Africa. This is due to its unique geographical location. Sudanese society exhibits significant diversity in terms of its ethnic, religious, and linguistic makeup. The 1955-56 census revealed that Sudan was home to at least 570 tribes and ethnic groups at the time of its independence. Broadly speaking, the ethnic composition can be categorized into seven main groups: Arab descendants, Southerners with African affiliation, Western groups in Kordofan and Darfur, Nuba in the Nuba Mountains and Kordofan, Beja in eastern Sudan, Nubians, and foreigners and miscellaneous groups. As a result, the culture and traditions in Sudan are incredibly rich, encompassing clothing, arts, and music.
Linguistically, Sudan is known for its diverse range of languages, including Arabic, Nilotic, and Nilo-Hamitic languages. In total, there are 113 languages spoken, with Arabic being the dominant one. Religion in Sudan is also diverse. It includes Islam, Christianity, indigenous religions, lesser-known religions or unaffiliated. The division between the north and south of Sudan is often attributed to religious and ethnic differences, as well as the underrepresentation of one group compared to the other in the government.
History of Sudanese Politics and economy
Before diving into the current conflict in Sudan, it is essential to gain an understanding of the historical political landscape and economic factors that have contributed to this tragic situation.
1. The period of Sudan’s pre-independence
I have gathered information that allows me to categorize this period into six main phases. Initially, around 3000 BC when Sudan was known as Kush, it was closely intertwined with Egypt, with the pharaohs ruling it as a province. However, the extent of Egyptian control over Sudan fluctuated depending on military strength, and during periods of weakness or foreign invasions, Sudan developed its own political structures. This included the Kingdom of Kush at Kerma (Dongola), followed by the Kushite kingdom of Napatan near Karima. Subsequently, the Kingdom of Meroe emerged, which was less influenced by Egyptian culture and traditions. In AD 350, the kingdom faced invasion and destruction by the Kingdom of Axum, located in present-day Ethiopia.
The second phase began with the arrival of the ethnic group Noba in the sixth century AD, resulting in the emergence of three Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. These kingdoms adopted Christianity, which played a significant role in their political institutions. The third phase commenced with the Muslim invasion of Nubia in 642. Under the Funj and Fur Sultanates, both the northern and southern parts of Sudan became Islamized and Arabized. In 1820, Muhammad Ali, the viceroy of Egypt (which was nominally under the Ottoman Empire), invaded Sudan and gained control over territories such as Sinnar and Kordofan. This marked the beginning of the fourth period known as the Turko-Egyptian regime in Sudan.
The fifth phase, known as The Mahdiyya, followed the Mahdist revolution, challenged the weakened Turko-Egyptian occupation and established an independent state in 1885. The regime took its name from the Sufi Sheikh Muhammad Ahmed Ibn Abdullah, who proclaimed himself as the awaited Mahdi (leader and savior). Eventually, the growing signs of weakness within the Mahdist state and increasing European presence and competition in central Africa led to a policy favoring the re-conquest of Sudan, marking the start of the sixth and final phase.
During this time, Italy and France made attempts in Sudan, but due to England's concerns about potential access to the Nile waters by other European powers, England initiated the reconquest under the name of Egypt (as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan). This was done in accordance with the Berlin Treaty of 1884, which delineated areas of influence among European players, and subsequently, all other European powers were asked to leave.
Following several clashes between Sudanese, Egyptians, and the British, the militant organization called the White Flag League (WFL) called for the withdrawal of Britain from both Egypt and Sudan. This led to a division between two groups with two slogans: "Sudan for the Sudanese," advocating for self-government through gradual development under British tutelage, and "Unity of the Nile Valley," which sought closer cooperation with Egypt. During this period, a parliament was established, composing of two main parties: the Umma and the NUP (National Unionist Party). Despite the NUP, which favored union, winning the majority of seats in elections, the parliament agreed in August 1955 to accelerate the process of self-rule through agreements.
On January 1st, 1956, the Republic of Sudan officially celebrated its independence.
2.The period of Sudan’s post-independence
Since gaining independence, Sudan has experienced three civilian parliamentary regimes and three military regimes. Throughout the three parliamentary regimes, the legislative body was consistently referred to as a constituent assembly, with the primary responsibility of drafting a permanent constitution for the country. Unfortunately, no substantial progress was made in this regard. The closest achievement came during Nimeiri's regime when a new constitution was established, forming a presidential secular and unitary republic with a socialist orientation. However, a significant drawback of the 1973 constitution was that it legitimized a one-party system with limited tolerance and granted extensive powers to the president. Eventually, a popular uprising, after 16 years of Nimeiri's absolute rule, led to his removal and the abandonment of his "permanent" constitution.
This brings us to the prominent aspect of Sudan's politics, which is the occurrence of coups. Sudan has witnessed numerous coup attempts, earning it the nickname "the coup laboratory." There have been 36 coup attempts or plots, with six successful ones:
1. Abdallah Khalil overthrew Ibrahim Abboud in 1958.
2. Ismail Alazahari ousted Gaafar Nimeiri in 1969.
3. Abdel AlDahab overthrew Gaafar Nimeiri in 1985.
4. Sadiq Almahdi was overthrown by Omar AlBashir in 1989.
5. Omar AlBashir was initially overthrown by Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf in 2019.
6. Abdullah Hmdook was subsequently replaced by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan in 2021.
Among the various regimes, two particularly intriguing ones stand out due to their significant impact on contemporary Sudanese politics.
Nimeiri and Sudan's tanked Economy
Sudan's economy encompassed various sectors, including agriculture, industry, and construction. However, successive leaders in Sudan consistently lacked effective economic management. Among them, Nimeiri's tenure stands out as particularly detrimental, marked by two failed projects—the Rahad agriculture scheme and the Kenana Sugar project. Furthermore, Nimeiri's excessive borrowing exacerbated the economic crisis. By the end of 1987, the World Bank and the European Economic Commission estimated Sudan's debt to be around $9 billion, surpassing its entire GDP. Despite the suffering experienced by the Sudanese people, Nimeiri refused to acknowledge the famine and instead left the task of addressing the crisis to the regime that succeeded him.
Bashir's Regime, the North-South Division, and what led to the Current Conflict
The north-south division emerged as another significant aspect of Sudanese politics following the series of coups. The division between the Muslim-Arabized north and the Christian-indigenous south began escalating into violence during the 1950s. The southern region felt marginalized and unrepresented in national politics, with their concerns repeatedly confirmed by northern politicians. For instance, in 1951, out of the 93 members of the Legislative Assembly, only 13 were from the south, and the Constitutional Amendments Commission (CAC) had just one southern member among its 13 members.
The civil war persisted, and numerous mediators were pursued, including the Intergovernmental Authority for Desertification and Development (IGAD) established by Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Somalia, Uganda, and Djibouti, as well as the Libyan Egyptian Joint Initiative (LEJI). However, all these attempts failed until 2005.
Finally, in 2005, a comprehensive peace agreement was reached between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) and the government led by Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir. This agreement was facilitated in part by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), consisting of African nations, and supported by the United States, United Kingdom, Norway, and Italy. The 2005 agreement established a timetable for a referendum on whether Sudan should be divided, resulting in South Sudan becoming an independent country. The referendum took place in January 2011 and received overwhelming support, with nearly 99 percent of South Sudanese voting in favor of independence. On July 9th of that year, the Republic of South Sudan officially came into existence. All these developments occurred during the regime of Al-Bashir, prompting a closer examination of his government structure.
Considering the history of military takeovers in Sudan, Al-Bashir was aware of the risks he faced and devised a strategy known as coup proofing. This involved surrounding himself with loyal protectors, but keeping each of them in check to prevent any attempts to overthrow him.
His first reliance was on the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF). Additionally, he relied on and armed Arab militias known as Janjaweed. Among the members of this group, one individual he trusted the most was Mohammed Hamdan Degalo, also known as Hemeti. Al-Bashir referred to him as Hemayti, meaning "my protection." Hemeti later became the leader of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in 2017. To maintain the loyalty of the RSF, Al-Bashir granted Hemeti financial autonomy and control over gold mines in Darfur, among other privileges. Similarly, he granted the SAF control over significant sectors such as weapon production and telecommunications. The main purpose of both the RSF and SAF was to protect Al-Bashir. While the Sudanese president focused on enriching these two groups, with 60-70% of the economy directed toward the security sector, the Sudanese people faced economic struggles. This economic disparity ultimately triggered a revolution led by civilians. Al-Bashir clung to power for months but eventually was removed from power by the SAF, led by Commander-in-Chief Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf and his successor Abdel Fattah Al-Burhan, and the RSF, led by Hemeti, when they decided to join the civilians and take control of Sudan.
The current war
On December 19, 2018, a revolution began with the aim of overthrowing the brutal military regime of Al-Bashir. Surprisingly, the two men who were believed to be Al-Bashir's closest allies played a significant role in his removal. Although the people were pleased with Al-Bashir's downfall, they remained suspicious of the two men who orchestrated it. Their suspicions turned out to be justified as the two men later turned against the protesters when pro-democracy demonstrations continued to escalate in Khartoum. The ensuing violence and massacres prompted several countries to intervene and assist Sudan in transitioning towards democracy. These countries exerted pressure on both the military and protesters to agree to a power-sharing agreement.
Under the new deal, a transitional council was established, with members from both the military and civilian sectors. The military was granted control for 21 months, while civilians had 18 months. The leading positions within the council were occupied by Burhan as the chair, Hemeti as the vice-chair, and Abdullah Hmdook as the prime minister. Nonetheless, the military frequently interfered with Hmdook's governance, and in October 2021, a staged coup targeted his government, resulting in his resignation in January 2022. This made Burhan the de facto leader once again, with Hemeti serving as his second-in-command.
After a year of continued protests, pressure from the United States, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and the United Kingdom led to the signing of another agreement in December 2022. The agreement promised the establishment of a new civilian-led transitional government by April 2023. However, a major disagreement between Burhan and Hemeti regarding a crucial aspect of the deal arose. The disagreement centered around the integration of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) into Burhan's army, which would potentially limit Hemeti's power. Burhan wanted this integration to occur within two years, while Hemeti insisted on a timeframe of ten years. This disagreement created a significant rift between the two leaders, ultimately leading to the current conflict.
Both Burhan and Hemeti deployed numerous forces across the country, with Burhan's army, including an air force, being responsible for the casualties. Despite several attempts at mediation from countries such as the United States, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and African nations within the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), a power struggle between army chief Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and his former deputy, RSF commander Hemeti, erupted into an all-out war on April 15. The conflict has tragically resulted in the loss of at least 3,000 lives and the displacement of over three million people.
For the past three months, the residents of Khartoum, the capital of Sudan, have endured a daily barrage of air raids, artillery explosions, and gunfights. The relentless urban warfare and widespread looting have forced 1.7 million people to flee their homes, seeking safety elsewhere. According to the United Nations, an additional 740,000 people have crossed the borders into neighboring countries, many of which are grappling with their own economic or political challenges.
The actions of these two individuals jeopardizes the preservation of the many treasures that Sudan has. Sudan is a country of immense beauty and cultural richness. It offers diverse landscapes, including deserts, mountains, tropical forests, and captivating historical and archaeological sites. Remarkable destinations such as the Meroe pyramids, the necropolis of Nuri, and the Taka Mountains beckon visitors.
*During these troubling times, it is essential to keep Sudan in our prayers. Additionally, if you are interested in providing support to the Sudanese people, I have compiled some resources for donation:
Resources
YouTube Videos:
Articles:
Books:
-Sudan, Abdel Salam Sidahmed and Alsir Sidahmed (fav)
-A History of Modern Sudan, Robert O. Collins
KM, Till next week <3
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